ROMAN Empire

Introduction

Ancient Rome was an Italian civilization that began from a simple farming village on the Italian peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empire in the ancient world covering parts of Europe, Asia and Africa.^. 

In its approximately 12 centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a Monarchy to an aristocratic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate southern and western Europe, Asia Minor, north Africa and arts of eastern Europe. 

Foundation of Rome and Roman Kingdom(753 BCE – 509 BCE)

According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus, who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas and who were grandsons of the Latin King, Numitor of Alba Longa.

The early Rome was a monarchy supposed to be ruled by seven kings; before the last king Tarquinus was removed from power by Lucius Brutus and Rome was transformed into a Republic in about 509 BCE.

Roman Republic (509 BCE – 27 BCE)

From 509 BCE Rome flourished and her territories increased under able generals. A system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority as imperium, or military command. The consuls had to work with the Senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility.

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar, the ablest of all Roman generals extended the Roman hegemony over Spain, France and Germany as well as part of England. The Battle of Pharsalus gave a brilliant victory to Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all his opponents. 

Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome, attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats. He was granted many offices and honours. In just five years, he held four consulships, two ordinary dictatorships, and two special dictatorships: one for ten years and another for perpetuity. He was murdered on March 15, 44 BC, in the Ides of March by some senators who believed Caesar wanted to become Emperor.

The Triumvirate

Caesar's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome. Without the dictator's leadership, the city was ruled by his friend and colleague, Mark Anthony. Soon afterward, Octavius, whom Caesar adopted through his will, arrived in Rome. In 43 BC, along with Antony and Marcus Lepidus, Caesar's best friend, he legally established the Second Triumvirate. This alliance lasted for five years. Upon its formation, 130–300 senators were executed, and their property was confiscated, due to their supposed support for the murder of Caesar. In 42 BC, Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar's assassins Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius, in the Battle of Phillipe

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The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs: Lepidus was left in charge of Africa, Antony, the eastern provinces, and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul.

The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years. However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated, and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. 

By the end of the Triumvirate, Antony was living in Egypt, an independent and rich kingdom ruled by Cleopatra VII, which was obviously not liked by Octavius. Octavius defeated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire, and for the Romans, a new era had begun.

Roman Empire

In 27 BC, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. His leadership brought the zenith of the Roman civilization that lasted for two centuries. In that year, he took the name Augusuts. That event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. 

Officially, the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers. He transformed the Roman Republic into an Empire and took the title of Emperor. He maintained the empire intact and consolidated his position. He reorganized the administration of the Provinces and undertook a number of popular reforms. He saved the Empire from decline and destruction.

Besides that, the Empire was safer, happier and more glorious than the Roman Empire. His reign (27 BCE to AD 14) marked the beginning of Roman peace called Pax Romana in history that lasted till 180 AD / CE. During this period there were no major wars, business prospered and the standard of living improved.

The successors of Augustus were not capable rulers, nor were able men. As a result the Roman Empire declined by 180 AD/ CE. The five worth mentioning Roman Emperors after Augustus was Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius and Marcus Aurelius. 

Among the various important events during this period are the crucification of Jesus Christ and the condemnation of the Christians by Emperor Nero. Jesus Christ was crucified in this period, on Friday, April 3, AD 33 during the reign of Tiberius Caesar.

Achievements of the Roman Empire

The Romans are still remembered today, including names such as Julius Caesar, Cicero and Augustus. Ancient Roman society contributed greatly to government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language, society and more in the Western world.

A civilization highly developed for its time, Rome professionalized and greatly expanded its military and created a system of government called Res Publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as large monuments, palaces, and public facilities.

The centers of Roman life were open market places called Fora (Forum), where public meetings were held. Emperor Trajan’s Fora was the finest. Roman cultural achievements were often patterned on the Greek models. By copying Greek accomplishments in education, arts and science, the Romans preserved and continued much that might otherwise have been lost.

Regarding portrait and sculpture, the Romans produced original works of great beauty. The Colosseum was the chief landmark of Rome. It was a huge amphitheatre, where the ancient Romans watched gladiators (trained fighters) fight wild animals. Also the Pantheon, a temple in honor of all Roman gods deserves mention. Beside these, Emperor Nero’s palace Domus Aurea, the Triple Arch of Constantine and Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) dedicated to Emperor Augustus are worth mentioning.

Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire. Latin literature was at its height at this time. Many Greek comedies and tragedies, as well as Homer’s epic Odyssey were translated into Latin by Livy, a Roman historian. Another historian Tacitus, described the fall of Rome in his Annals.

Rome produced great writers like Aurelius, Cicero, Lucretius, etc. Livy, Tacitus and Pliny were the historians who wrote about the Roman Empire that made a valuable contribution to the historical resources of early Rome. Lucretius was a celebrated poet who wrote his collection titled ‘On the Nature of Things’. Ptolemy’s astronomical theories as well as medical encyclopedia written by Celsus a Roman doctor and Galen a Greek scientist living in Italy are also worth mentioning.

Thus the ancient Roman Empire contributed a great deal and its therefore rightly regarded as the pioneer of the western civilization.